15.根據Gershon、Barocas、Canton、Li和Vlahov(2009)提出的員警壓力模式(the effects of police stress)，不包括下列何因素？
(A)知覺工作壓力
(B)壓力因應歷程
(C)負向的身心反應
(D)個人素質

Gershon, R. R. M., Barocas, B., Canton, A. N., Li, X., & Vlahov, D. (2009). Mental, physical, and behavioral outcomes associated with perceived work stress in police officers. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 36(3), 275–289. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093854808330015 

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摘要

This study estimates the effects of perceived work stress in police officers and determines the impact of coping on both perceived work stress and health. Officers from a large, urban police department (N = 1,072) completed detailed questionnaires. Exposure to critical incidents, workplace discrimination, lack of cooperation among coworkers, and job dissatisfaction correlated significantly with perceived work stress. Work stress was significantly associated with adverse outcomes, including depression and intimate partner abuse. Officers who relied on negative or avoidant coping mechanisms reported both higher levels of perceived work stress and adverse health outcomes. Results have implications for improving stress-reducing efforts among police officers. Interventions that address modifiable stressors and promote effective coping and resiliency will probably be most beneficial in minimizing police stress and associated outcomes.

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知覺工作壓力 → (A) 知覺工作壓力

憂鬱、親密伴侶虐待 → (C) 負向的身心反應

負向、迴避型的因應機制 → (B) 壓力因應歷程

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只有 (D) 個人素質 沒有提到

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