19. The basis of cellular differentiation is
(A) the operon.
(B) selective gene expression.
(C) cloning.
(D) mutation.
(E) migration.

20. Which of the following permits a single gene to code for more than one polypeptide? (A) alternative RNA splicing (B) mutation (C) genetic differentiation (D) addition of different types of caps and tails to the final version of the mRNA strands (E) DNA methylation

21. During DNA replication, the single-strand DNA-binding (SSB) proteins (A) are generally found more on the leading strand than the lagging strand. (B) bind cooperatively to single-stranded DNA and cover the bases to prevent base-pairing. (C) prevent the folding of the single-stranded DNA. (D) bind cooperatively to short hairpin helices that readily form in the single-stranded DNA. (E) All of the above.

22. Which of the following types of noncoding RNA chiefly functions in the processing and chemical modification of ribosomal RNAs (rRNAs)? (A) Small nuclear RNAs (snRNAs) (B) Small nucleolar RNAs (snoRNAs) (C) Small interfering RNAs (siRNAs) (D) Transfer RNAs (tRNAs) (E) MicroRNAs (miRNAs)

23. Which of the following statements about microarrays is NOT correct? (A) Microarrays use specific antibodies to detect the presence of mRNA of each specific gene. (B) Microarrays enable scientists to determine the activity of thousands of genes at once. (C) Microarrays use fluorescently labeled cDNA molecules to identify particular genes expressed at a particular time (D) Microarrays are used to determine which genes are active in different tissues or in tissues of different states of health. (E) None of the above.

24. Which of the following can NOT be determined by NGS (next-generation sequencing)? (A) the genome of a cell. (B) the transcriptome of a cell. (C) the proteome of a cell (D) the miRNA of a cell. (E) the genome of mitochondria.

25. A molecule outside a cell triggers changes in the transcription and translation inside the cell through (A) metabolic pathways. (B) signal transduction pathways. (C) cell junctions. (D) cytoskeleton reorganization. (E) chromosome replication.

26. Which of the following statements about proto-oncogenes is NOT correct? (A) Proto-oncogenes are normal genes with the potential to become oncogenes. (B) Many proto-oncogenes code for growth factors. (C) A mutation occurring in a proto-oncogene can convert it to become an oncogene. (D) Proto-oncogenes are a type of carcinogens. (E) None of the above.

27. Which of the following organisms are a major source of restriction enzymes? (A) Parietal cells (B) Cancer cells (C) Archaea (D) Bacteria (E) Viruses

28. Which of the following spontaneous lesions in DNA occurs most frequently in a mammalian cell? (A) Guanine oxidation (B) Cytosine deamination (C) Depurination (D) Guanine alkylation (E) Depyrimidination

29. The enzyme that converts information stored in their RNA to information stored in DNA is (A) DNA ligase. (B) reverse transcriptase. (C) a restriction enzyme. (D) RNA polymerase. (E) a recombinase,

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