10. X inactivation

a) Identify and describe the post-transcriptional modification mechanism that resolves this numerical paradox. (5 points)

b) Contrast the evolutionary and systemic consequences of a point mutation occurring within an exon (protein-coding sequence) versus a mutation occurring within an upstream regulatory sequence (such as an enhancer). Focus your discussion on the concept of Pleiotropy and organismal viability. (5 points)

c) Explain why simple diffusion across the outer body surface is sufficient for a microscopic single-celled organism, but entirely inadequate for a complex, multicellular mammal. (5 points)

d) Identify two distinct organ systems in the human body that have evolved complex, highly folded internal microstructures specifically to bypass this surface area limitation. For each system, identify the specific anatomical structure involved (e.g., a cellular or tissue-level structure) and describe how its specialized shape maximizes functional capacity. (5 points)

e) Describe the fundamental lifecycle known as Alternation of Generations. Clearly differentiate between the ploidy levels, structural roles, and reproductive products of the gametophyte generation versus the sporophyte generation. (5 points)

f) Analyze how the dominant life phase shifts as you move from non-vascular plants (Bryophytes) to seedless vascular plants (Monilophytes/Ferns) and finally to seed plants (Gymnosperms/Angiosperms). Explain the evolutionary advantage of maintaining a reduced, protected gametophyte within a dominant sporophyte body in a terrestrial habitat. (5 points)

1. In a cell at 37°C (310 K), ATP hydrolysis is:ATP + H₂O → ADP + PᵢGiven:ΔG°' = -30.5 kJ/mole[ATP] = 5.0 mM[ADP] = 0.50 mM[Pᵢ] = 1.0 mMand assume activity of water ≈ 1.(a) Calculate the reaction quotient Q. (5%)(b) Compared with standard biochemical conditions, is ATP hydrolysis more favorable, less favorable, or equally favorable in this cell? Briefly justify. (5%)

2. The initial velocity of an enzyme-catalyzed reaction was measured at various substrate concentrations in the absence and in the presence of inhibitor Y at a fixed concentration. The results are shown below.(a) Based on the data, how does inhibitor Y affect Vmax and Km? (4%)??(b) What type of inhibition does inhibitor Y most likely exhibit? Explain briefly using the kinetic data. (4%)??(c) If the substrate concentration were increased to a very high level, would the inhibition by Y be overcome? Why or why not? (2%)??

3. Please explain the definition (2%), process (4%), and mechanism (4%) of photorespiration.??

4. (a) What is the salvage pathway of purine? (b) What reactions (substrates & products) are involved?(c) What is the key enzyme in response to this process? (d) What disease is caused by the deficient of this key enzyme? (e) What is the outcome of the disease?

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