44. Which of the following vertebrate organ systems does not open directly to the external environment?
(A) circulatory system
(B) excretory system
(C) respiratory system
(D) digestive system
(E) reproductive system

45. Which of the following physiological responses is an example of positive feedback? (A) Stimulation of a nerve cell causes sodium ions to leak into the cell, and the sodium influx triggers the inward leaking of even more sodium. (B) The pituitary gland secretes a hormone called TSH, which stimulates the thyroid gland to secrete another hormone called thyroxine; a high concentration of thyroxine suppresses the pituitary's secretion of TSH. (C) The body's production of red blood cells, which transport oxygen from the lungs to other organs, is stimulated by a low concentration of oxygen. (D) A high concentration of carbon dioxide in the blood causes deeper, more rapid breathing, which expels carbon dioxide. (E) An increase in the concentration of glucose in the blood stimulates the pancreas to secrete insulin, a hormone that lowers blood glucose concentration.

46. The mammalian trachea and esophagus both open into the (A) stomach. (B) pharynx. (C) epiglottis. (D) rectum. (E) large intestine.

47. Individuals whose diet consists primarily of corn would likely become (A) malnourished. (B) overnourished. (C) undernourished. (D) anorexic. (E) obese.

48. If you were to jog a mile a few hours after lunch, which stored fuel would you probably tap? (A) muscle proteins (B) fats stored in adipose tissue (C) muscle and liver glycogen (D) blood proteins (E) fat stored in the liver

49. Blood returning to the mammalian heart in a pulmonary vein will drain first into the (A) right ventricle. (B) vena cava. (C) left atrium. (D) right atrium. (E) left ventricle.

50. In negative-pressure breathing, inhalation results from (A) using muscles of the lungs to expand the alveoli. (B) relaxing the muscles of the rib cage. (C) contracting the diaphragm. (D) contracting the abdominal muscles. (E) forcing air from the throat down into the lungs.

51. Which of the following reactions prevails in red blood cells traveling through pulmonary capillaries? (Hb = hemoglobin)(A) CO2 + H2O → H2CO3(B) Hb(O2)4→ Hb + 4O2(C) Hb + 4 CO2 → Hb(CO2)4(D) H2CO3→H1 + HCO3-(E) Hb + 4 O2→ Hb(O2)4

52. Which of the following molecules is incorrectly paired with a source? (A) interferons_virus-infected cells (B) interleukin-1-macrophages (C) perforins cytotoxic T cells (D) lysozyme tears (E) immunoglobulins-helper T cells

53. Which of the following is a characteristic of the early stages of local inflammation? (A) precapillary arteriole constriction (B) attack by cytotoxic T cells (C) fever (D) antibody-complement - mediated lysis of microbes (E) release of histamine

54. An epitope associates with which part of an antibody? (A) the antibody tail (B) the antibody-binding site (C) the variable regions of a heavy chain and light chain combined (D) the light-chain constant regions only (E) the heavy-chain constant regions only

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