51. Often referred to as the "hunger hormone," __________ is a peptide hormone secreted primarily by endocrine cells of the stomach. Its concentration rises sharply before meals to stimulate appetite-regulating centers in the hypothalamus and declines following stomach distension after food intake.
(A) glucagon
(B) peptide YY (PYY)
(C) leptin
(D) ghrelin
(E) insulin

52. A normal heartbeat begins with spontaneous electrical activity that coordinates atrial and ventricular contraction. Which of the following describes the correct physiological sequence of electrical conduction in the human heart? (A) signals from the sinoatrial (SA) node spreading through atria → signals delayed in the atrioventricular (AV) node → bundle branches passing signals to the heart apex → signals spreading upward throughout ventricles via Purkinje fibers. (B) signals from the atrioventricular (AV) node spreading through atria → signals delayed in the sinoatrial (SA) node → bundle branches passing signals to the heart apex → signals spreading upward throughout ventricles via Purkinje fibers. (C) signals from the sinoatrial (SA) node spreading through ventricles → signals delayed in the atrioventricular (AV) node → bundle branches passing signals to the heart apex → signals spreading upward throughout atria via Purkinje fibers. (D) signals from the sinoatrial (SA) node spreading through atria → bundle branches passing signals to the heart apex → signals delayed in the atrioventricular (AV) node → signals spreading upward throughout ventricles via Purkinje fibers. (E) signals from the atrioventricular (AV) node spreading through atria → bundle branches passing signals to the heart apex → signals delayed in the sinoatrial (SA) node → signals spreading upward throughout ventricles via Purkinje fibers.

53. Many predatory animals produce toxins to disable their prey. Some of these toxins inhibit nervous communication. Nerve impulses are transmitted along axons. Some axons are myelinated. Which type of cell produces myelin? (A) Neurone (B) Rod cell (C) Schwann cell (D) Astrocyte (E) Lymphocyte

54. In cells, energy can be released from substrates by anaerobic and aerobic respiration. Most eukaryotic cells can respire anaerobically. Which of the following describes a step in the process of anaerobic respiration? (A) decarboxylation of lactate (B) phosphorylation of hexoses (C) oxidation of pyruvate (D) removal of phosphate groups from glucose (E) decarboxylation of pyruvate to form acetyl-CoA

55. According to the description, which statement about sodium ions (Na+) is NOT correct? (A) Na+ influx into nerve cells drives depolarization during impulse conduction. (B) Slow Na+ influx into the SA node generates regular heart impulses. (C) Na+ gradient powers co-transport of glucose/amino acids into intestinal cells. (D) The Na+/K+ pump directly causes depolarization by moving Na+ into cells. (E) Na+ movement is essential for initiating cardiac muscle contractions.

56. Tumour necrosis factor (TNF) is a protein that can be released by several types of cell. It plays an important part in the immune response. This protein binds to specific receptors on the surface of cell membranes stimulating chemical reactions inside the cell. As a result, a number of responses may occur that include inflammation and the stimulation of phagocytosis by macrophages. Antibodies to TNF are used to treat rheumatoid arthritis. According to the text, why are antibodies to TNF used to treat rheumatoid arthritis? (A) They increase TNF-induced phagocytosis by macrophages. (B) They promote the release of TNF to strengthen the immune response. (C) They reduce inflammation caused by TNF activity. (D) They block TNF receptors on cell membranes. (E) They decrease the risk of bacterial infections in joints.

57. Polytene chromosomes of Drosophila salivary glands each consist of multiple identical DNA strands that are aligned in parallel arrays. How could these arise? (A) malfunction of the Topoisomerase (B) replication without separation (C) meiosis followed by mitosis (D) fertilization by multiple sperm (E) special association with histone proteins

58. Cyanide poisons mitochondria by blocking the final step in the electron transport chain. Human red blood cells placed in an isotonic solution containing cyanide are likely to__________. (A) retain the normal cell shape, but the mitochondria will be poisoned (B) lyse as the cyanide concentration increases inside the cell (C) switch to anaerobic metabolism (D) become unable to carry oxygen (E) be unaffected

59. In an immunologically naive mammal, a bacterial infection would most rapidly trigger its__________. (A) Toll-like receptors that bind to lipopolysaccharides (B) memory cells to produce antibodies (C) plasma cells to produce antigens (D) cytotoxic T cells (E) humoral immune responses

60. Radish flowers may be red, purple, or white. A cross between a red-flowered plant and a white-flowered plant yields all-purple offspring. The part of the radish we eat may be oval or long, with long being the dominant characteristic. If true-breeding red long radishes are crossed with true-breeding white oval radishes, which of the following phenotypic ratios would be expected in the F2 generation? (A) 9:3:3:1 (B) 9:4:3:1 (C) 4:1:1:4 (D) 4:1:1:3:1:1 (E) 6:3:3:2:1:1

61. In a person who eats three regular meals per day, which of the following is the primary source of blood glucose before lunch? (A) Protein (B) Muscle glycogen (C) Glucose from adipose tissue (D) Liver glycogen (E) Lipid

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