76. Enzyme activity in cells is controlled by which of the following?
(A) allosteric effectors
(B) covalent modifications
(C) feedback inhibition
(D) modulation of expression levels
(E) all of the above

77. The enzymes that catalyze glycolysis are located in the __________. (A) cytosol (B) endoplasmic reticulum (C) inner mitochondrial membrane (D) mitochondrial matrix (E) outer mitochondrial membrane

78. The β cells of the islets of Langerhans secrete __________ in response to__________ glucose levels in the muscle and/or adipose tissue. (A) glucagon; low (B) glucagon; elevated (C) insulin; low (D) insulin; elevated (E) somatostatin; elevated

79. Increased levels of epinephrine in the blood will __________. (A) activate adenylate cyclase in liver and muscle cells (B) inhibit glycolysis in the muscle cell (C) stimulate glycogen synthesis (D) stimulate gluconeogenesis in the muscle cell (E) all of the above

80. RNA interference is a mechanism of posttranscriptional RNA-dependent __________. (A) apoptosis (B) chromatin-remodeling (C) coactivation (D) gene silencing (E) histone methylation

81. In quantitative RT-PCR for SARS-CoV-2 detection, two patient samples are analyzed. Sample A has a Ct value of 22, while Sample B has a Ct value of 30. Assuming equal amplification efficiency, which statement best describes the relative viral loads in these samples? (A) Sample A has approximately 2-fold higher viral load than Sample B (B) Sample A has approximately 8-fold higher viral load than Sample B (C) Sample B has approximately 100-fold higher viral load than Sample A (D) Sample A has approximately 256-fold higher viral load than Sample B (E) Viral loads cannot be compared using Ct values

82. A researcher studying epigenetic changes in colorectal cancer identifies hypermethylation of the MLH1 gene promoter, leading to loss of DNA mismatch repair function. This methylation occurs at the 5-position of cytosine residues within CpG dinucleotides. Which molecule serves as the methyl group donor for this reaction? (A) Methylcobalamin (B) N5-Methyl-THF (C) S-Adenosylmethionine (D) Betaine (E) Choline

83. Human somatic cells in culture stop dividing after approximately 50 to 60 population doublings, known as the Hayflick limit. This replicative senescence is associated with the progressive shortening of the ends of chromosomes. Which enzymatic activity is normally suppressed in most somatic cells but reactivated in cancer cells and could prevent this shortening? (A) DNA ligase (B) Primase (C) Topoisomerase (D) 3' to 5' exonuclease activity of DNA polymerase (E) Reverse transcriptase activity of telomerase

84. Isoform A of LDH has Km = 0.1 mM and kcat = 500 s-1. Isoform B has Km = 0.5 mM and kcat = 1000 s-1. When substrate concentration is 10 mM, which statement is correct? (A) Isoform A is more efficient because kcat/Km is higher. (B) Isoform B is faster because both enzymes are saturated and Isoform B has higher kcat. (C) Isoform A is faster because it reaches saturation at lower substrate concentration. (D) Both isoforms have equal reaction rates because substrate is in excess. (E) Efficiency cannot be compared without knowing enzyme concentrations.

85. Researchers used CRISPR-Cas9 to generate a gene knockout clone in mammalian cells. After transfection with Cas9 and sgRNA targeting exon 3 of a gene of interest, they observed frameshift mutations in the target region. Which DNA repair pathway is primarily responsible for generating these frameshift mutations? (A) Base excision repair (B) Nucleotide excision repair (C) Mismatch repair (D) Homology-directed repair (E) Non-homologous end joining

86. Mechanical strain in the heart leads to the transcriptional activation of the NPPB gene. This process involves the recruitment of specific transcription factors to the promoter region. Which of the following best describes the initial event in this biochemical signaling cascade? (A) Activation of mechanosensitive ion channels and protein kinase signaling (B) Direct binding of sodium ions to the DNA promoter (C) Inhibition of RNA polymerase II (D) Dephosphorylation of histone tails (E) Export of mature mRNA through nuclear pores

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